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On the Origin of Religion To Charles Darwin, the origin of religious belief was no mystery. "As soon as the important faculties of the imagination, won- der, and curiosity, together with some power of reasoning, had become partially devel- oped, man would naturally crave to under- stand what was passing around him, and would have vaguely speculated on his own existence," he wrote in The Descent of Man. But our propensity to believe in unseen deities has long puzzled Darwin's scientific descendants. Every human society has had its gods, whether worshipped from Gothic cathedrals or Mayan pyramids. In all cul- tures, humans pour resources into elaborate religious buildings and rituals, with no obvi- ous boost to survival and reproduction. So how and when did religion arise? No consensus yet exists among scientists, but potential answers are emerging from both the archaeological record and studies of the mind itself. Some researchers, exploring religion's effects in society, suggest that it may boost fitness by promoting cooperative behavior. And in the past 15 years, a growing number of researchers have followed Darwin's lead and explored the hypothesis that religion springs naturally from the nor- mal workings of the human mind. This new field, the cognitive science of religion, draws on psychology, anthropology, and neuro- science to understand the mental building blocks of religious thought. "There are nine- tional properties of our cognitive systems that lean toward a belief in supernatural agents, to something like a god," says experi- mental psychologist Justin Barrett of the Uni- versity of Oxford in the United Kingdom. Barrett and others see the roots of reli- gion in our sophisticated social cognition. Humans, they say, have a tendency to see signs of "agents"—minds like ow own—at work in the world. "We have a tremendous capacity to imbue even inanimate things with beliefs, desires, emotions, and con- sciousness, ... and this is at the core of many religious beliefs;' says Yale University psy- chologist Paul Bloom. Meanwhile, archaeologists seeking signs of ancient religion focus on its inextricable link to another cognitive ability: symbolic behavior. They, too, stress religion's social component. "Religion is a particular form of a larger, social symbolic behavior," says archaeologist Colin Renfrew of the Univer- sity of Cambridge in the United Kingdom. So archaeologists explore early religion by excavating sites that reveal the beginnings of symbolic behavior and of complex society. Yet these fields are developing chiefly in parallel, and there remains a yawning gap between the material evidence of the archaeo- logical record and the theoretical models of psychologists. Archaeological objects fall short of revealing our ancestors' minds, says Bloom, while on the psychological side, "we need more evidence!' Birth of the gods When did religious beliefs begin? A likely place to find out is the archaeological record, but infer- ring "religion" from ancient objects and practices can be a tall order. Many researchers take the use of symbols as a clue to bud- ding spirituality. As far back as 100,000 years ago, people at the South African site of Blombos Cave incised pieces of ochre with geometric designs, creating the first widely recognized signs of symbolic behavior (Science, 30 January, p. 569). Although it's difficult to equate enigmatic lines on a chunk of ochre with a belief system, researchers agree THE YEAR OF DARWI N This essay is the I 1 tn in a monthly senes. For more on evolutionary ongins online, see the Origins bldg at Hags. sdentemag.erglorIgins. For more on the Origin of Religion, listen to a pockast by author Elizabeth Culotta at www.selencermag.erg/ muftieneelle/podeast that such use of symbols is a prerequisite for religion, and some argue that religious beliefs must have existed by this time. The first deliberate burials are found at roughly the same time, at a site called Qafzeh in Israel, dated to about 95,000 years ago. Researchers have dug up more than 30 indi- viduals, including a 9-year-old child with its legs bent and a deer antler in its arms. And starting about 65,000 years ago or even ear- lier, Neandertals also sometimes buried their dead. Henry de Lumley of the Institut de Paltiontologie Humaine in Paris has referred to these ancient burials as "the birth of meta- physical anguish." But others aren't sure what metaphysical message burial conveys. "There can be lots of reasons to bury things; just look at kids in a sandbox," says Barrett. Burial by itself, says archaeologist Nicholas Conard of the University of Tubingen in Germany, may best be considered a sign of "protobelier If they had to name one time and place when the gods were born, Conard and some others might point to 30,000 to 35,000 years ago in Europe. That's when symbolic expres- sion flowered in what's called the Upper Paleolithic explosion (Science, 6 February, p. 709). At this time, Ice Age hunter-gatherers painted strikingly realistic animals—and a few half-animal, half-human figures—on the walls of France's Grotte Chauvet and other caves. They also left small but spectac- ular figurines in caves in Germany, including a dramatic carved ivory "Venus" reported in May and three "lion-men"—each a carved male body with the head of a lion. The "Venus of Hohle Fels" illustrates the difficulties of interpreting such ancient objects: Conard, who discovered it, considers the 6-centimeter figure of a head- less woman with huge breasts and carefully carved genitalia to be a religious fertility object, while archaeologist Paul Mellen of the University of Cambridge has called it "paleo-porn." Yet many observers agree that the lionmen, with their com- bination of human and animal qualities—something seen in many early religions—are strong candidates for a supernatural being or spirit guide. Some go so far as to suggest that the small statues were pan of shamanistic rituals, though Conard says we cannot know for sure. "Even if it wasn't shamanism," he says, ". bet the bank it was something U consider religious beliefs.- 2 0 Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on November 25, 2009 784 6 NOVEMBER 2009 VOL 326 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org PublishedbyAAAS EFTA00731358 The world over. All cultures have religious beliefs, though they express them in diverse ways. Twenty thousand years later, humans reached another religious milestone, build- § ing what is often considered the world's first I temple at the 11,000-year-old site of Gobekli Tepe in Turkey (Science, 18 January 2008, p. 278). There, rows of standing stones 3 I up to 6 meters tall march down a high hill- side in circles; each massive stone is carved with images of wild animals. "There is the erection of monumental and megalithic architecture for the first time: says excava- tor Klaus Schmidt of the German Archaeo- logical Institute in Berlin. After this time, more organized sites with apparently religious aspects appear else- where. For example, at one of the first set- tled towns, Catalhoya in southern Turkey, excavator Ian Hodder of Stanford University and his crew are finding what they consider copious evidence of spiritual life: feasts with wild bulls, burials of ancestors beneath houses, and sometimes the removal and reintennent of skulls. And yet Hodder notes that separating "religion" from other activi- ties seems arbitrary, as it is not clear that the people of Catalhoyiik themselves separated the religious sphere ,, from the rest of life. Renfrew cautions that it might not be possible to know for sure that a culture wor- shipped gods until we can read their names—that is, until the literate societies of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, some 5000 years ago. Those early empires had both secu- lar and religious hierarchies, with priestly elites and some- times a god-king who ruled both g the temporal and spiritual realms. In this view, full-fledged "religion" develops hand in hand 3 with organized social hierarchies. It may be that "you don't necessarily € have belief in deities until you have persons of enormously high status, who themselves are 3 close to divine," like a pharaoh, says Renfrew. Born believers? While archaeologists trace the outward expressions of religious and symbolic behav- ior, another group of researchers is trying to trace more subtle building blocks of religious belief, seeking religion's roots in our minds. "Thu begin to see that a god is a likely thing for a human mind to construct." Deborah kelemon, Boston Iltivcrsitp According to the emerging cognitive model of religion, we areso keenly attuned to the designs and desires of other people that we are hypersensitive to signs of "agents": thinking minds like ow own. In what anthro- pologist Pascal Boyer of Washington Univer- sity in St. Louis in Missouri has described as a "hypertrophy of social cognition;' we tend to attribute random events or natural phe- Signs of the spirit? Small, 30,000-year-old fig- urines from Germany suggest religious belief. nomena to the agency of another being. When it comes to natural phenomena, "we may be intuitive theists: says cognitive psy- chologist Deborah Kelemen of Boston Uni- versity (BU). She has shown in a series of papers that young children prefer "teleologi- cal: or purpose-driven, expla- nations rather than mechanical ones for natural phenomena. For example, in several studies British and American children in first, second, and fourth grades were asked whether rocks are pointy because they are composed of small bits of material or in order to keep ani- mals from sitting on them. The children pre- ferred the teleological explanation. "They give an animistic quality to the rock; it's pro- tecting itself," Kelemen explains. Further studies have confirmed this tendency. Even Kelemen's own son—who "gets mechanistic explanations of everything"—is not immune: At age 3, after hearing how flowers grow from seeds, his question was, "Who makes the seeds?" The point of studying children is that they may better reflect innate rather than cultural biases, says Kelemen. But recent work suggests that it's not just children: Kelemen and Krista Casler of Franklin & Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylva- nia, found the same tendency to ascribe pur- pose to phenomena like rocks, sand, and lakes in uneducated Romany adults. They also tested BU undergraduates who had taken an average of three college science classes. When the undergrads had to respond under time pressure, they were likely to agree with nonscientific statements such as "The sun radiates heat because warmth nurtures life:' "It's hard work to overcome these teleo- logical explanations: says Kelemen, who adds that the data also suggest an uphill battle for scientific literacy. "When you speed people up, their hard work goes by the wayside." She's now investigating how professional scientists perform on her tests. Such purpose-driven beliefs are a step on the way to religion, she says. "Things exist Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on November 25, 2009 www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 326 6 NOVEMBER 2009 785 PublishedbyAAAS EFTA00731359 I ORIGINS for purposes, things are intentionally caused, things are intentionally caused for a purpose by some agent. ... You begin to see that a god is a likely thing for a human mind to construct." Other researchers find the work intrigu- ing. "If her data are right, we all from child- hood have a bias to see the natural world as purposefully designed," says Barrett. "It's a small step to suppose that the design has a designer." This predisposition to "creationist" explanations has resonance with another ten- dency in the human mind, says Barrett— something he calls the "hypersensitive agency detection device": looking for a thinking "being" even in nonliving things. In classic experiments in the 1940s, psycholo- gists found that people watching animations of circles, triangles, and squares darting about could identify various shapes as char- acters and infer a narrative. Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie noted in 1993 that this ten- dency could help explain religion, because it implies we attribute "agency" to all kinds of inanimate objects and ambiguous signals. As Barrett describes it: "When I hear a bump in the night, I think 'Who's there?' not 'What's Who made it? Studies suggest that children tend toward creationist explanations of natural phenomena. there?' ... Given ambiguous stimuli, we often posit an agency at play." Guthrie suggested that natural selection primed this system for false positives, because if the bump in the night is really a burglar—or a lion—you could be in danger, while if it's just the wind, no harm done. Of course, this is still a long way from believing in gods or spirits. But a hair- trigger agency detector could work with another sophisti- cated element of the human mind to make us prone to believe in gods, cognitive researchers say. They refer to what's called theory of mind, or the understanding that another being has a mind with intentions, desires, and beliefs of its own. Studies have shown that this ability develops over time in children and is usually present by age 5; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have localized the parts of the brain involved. If you suspect that an agent was responsible for some mysteri- ous event, it's a short step Raising the temple. The standing stones at Gobekli Tepe are considered by many to be the oldest humanmade holy place. to thinking that the agent has a mind like your own. "Higher order theory of mind enables you to represent mental states of beings not immediately or visibly present, and who could have a very different perspec- tive than your own," says Barrett. "That's what you need to have a rich repre- sentation of what it might be like to be a god." (It's also what is needed to have a functional reli- gion, because people need to know that others share their beliefs.) As Darwin put it, humans developing religion "would naturally attrib- ute to spirits the same passions, the same love of vengeance, or simplest form of justice, and the same affections which they themselves feel." Some fMRI studies lend support to this idea. In the 24 March issue of the Proceed- ings of the National Academy of Sciences, a team led by Jordan Grafman of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke in Bethesda, Maryland, asked 40 peo- ple to evaluate statements about God's emo- tions and relationships to humans, such as, "God is removed from the world" and "God is forgiving,- while they were in an fMRI scanner. The researchers found that the areas that lit up (indicating oxygen uptake and so presumably brain activity), such as the infe- rior frontal gyrus on both sides of the brain, are also involved in theory of mind. This and other results argue against any special "god region" of the brain as some have suggested, says Grafman. Rather, he says, "religious belief co-opts widely distributed brain sec- tors, including many concerned with so- called theory of mind:' Other researchers are extending this cog- nitive model, finding additional thought processes that they say make religious belief natural. For example, Bloom and Jesse 5 2 eF Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on November 25. 2009 786 6 NOVEMBER 2009 VOL 326 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org pubtethedayams EFTA00731360 ORIGINS I Bering of Queens University Belfast argue that children are predisposed to think that the mind persists even after the death of the body—something that approaches the idea of an afterlife. Bering showed children ages 4 through 12 years old a puppet show in which a crocodile ate a mouse. Then he asked the children questions about the mouse. Did it feel hunger? Was it still mad at its brother? The children agreed that the mouse's body no 12 longer functioned; it didn't need to eat, for example. But they thought it would still feel hunger; its psychological states persisted. Preschoolers showed this tendency more - than older children. E We can acknowledge the death of the 1, body, says Bering, but we believe that the 2 mind continues: "We have this unshakeable sense that ow minds are immortal.- Bloom O. notes that this kind of belief - is universal. A You won't find a community anywhere where most people don't believe that they are * separate from their bodies." Mind or soul? ,9 Such hypotheses seem to make intuitive sense. But critics such as Paul Harris of Har- vard University say that children learn about 3 the afterlife from others. Working in Spain CI E and Madagascar, Harris and colleagues did studies somewhat similar to Bering's, asking g children about the physical and psychological ti states of a person who had died. Older chil- dren and adults were more likely than younger children to think that psychological states continued after death, suggesting that ideas of the afterlife are learned. What's more, people in many cultures distinguish g between the mind, which learns and changes 16- over time, and something like an unchange- g able soul, says Harris. 'To say that there is a / continuance of mind after death misrepre- 2 sents these people's beliefs,- he says. - 1 think people are disposed not to dualism but I to 'triadism'of mind, body, and soul. Even those who embrace the cognitive E. model concede that more studies are needed to distinguish what is learned from what is innate. As for hypersensitive agency detec- j tion, "it's a compelling idea, but I haven't seen lots of empirical evidence that you can get from there to religious beliefs," says social psychologist Ara Norenzayan of the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, in Canada. Indeed, even if more data are forthcom- ing, such models are a long way from explaining the complex systems of gods and rituals that make up religion. Cognitive researchers face what has come to be called the "Mickey Mouse" problem: The Disney character Mickey Mouse has supernatural powers, but no one worships or would Social circuits. When subjects in an fMRI scanner thought about God's relationship with humans, a part of the brain involved in understanding the thoughts of others lit up (top tight). fight-or kill-for him. Our social brains may help explain why children the world over are attracted to talking teacups, but reli- gion is much more than that. "Deriving belief from the architecture of the mind is neces- sary but not sufficientr says Norenzayan. He favors an additional class of explana- tions for why religion is so prominent in every culture: It promotes cooperative behavior among strangers and so creates sta- ble groups (Science, 3 October 2008, p. 58). Other researchers hypothesize that religion is actually adaptive: By encouraging helpful behavior, religious groups boost the biologi- cal survival and reproduction of their mem- bers. Adhering to strict behavioral rules may signal that a religion's members are strongly committed to the group and so will not seek a free ride, a perennial problem in cooperative groups (Science, 4 September, p. 1196). Norenzayan and others also note that helpful behavior is more common when peo- ple think that they are being watched, so a supernatural god concerned with morality could encourage helpful behaviors, espe- cially in large groups where anonymity is possible. Some researchers suggest that cog- nitive tendencies led to religion, which then took hold and spread because it raised fitness. But others, such as Boyer, counter that this adaptationist explanation is itself light on data. "It is often said that reli- gion encourages or prescribes solidarity within the group, but we need evidence that people actually follow [their religion's] rec- ommendations: says Boyer. "The case is still open:' Meanwhile, disciplinary gaps persist among archaeology, psychology, and neuro- science. Cognitive types insist that ancient objects can answer only a small subset of questions, while some archaeologists dis- miss the cognitive model as speculation. Yet there have been some stirrings of interdisci- plinary activity. Archaeologist Steven Mithen of the University of Reading in the United Kingdom has suggested that the half- human, half-animal paintings and carvings of the Paleolithic demonstrate that early Homo sapiens were applying theory of mind to other animals 30,000 years ago. And anthropologists focusing on the develop- ment of religion are finding signs of key changes in ritual at archaeological sites like Catalhoya. All agree that the field is expe- riencing a surge of interest, with perhaps the best yet to come. "In the next 10 to 15 years there's likely to be quite a transformation, with a lot more evidence, to give us a com- pelling story about how religion arose:' says Norenzayan. —ELIZABETH CULOTTA Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on November 25. 2009 www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 326 6 NOVEMBER 2009 PublishedbyAAAS 787 EFTA00731361