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Case 1:20-cr-00330-PAE Document 452-2 Alaggia et al. Filed 11/12/21 Page 21 of 45 279 Table 2. Factors Influencing Child Sexual Abuse Disclosures. Barriers Facilitators Age: The younger the child victim, the less likely they will purposefully disclose. Gender: Males may be less likely to disclose in childhood/adolescence, fear of being seen as homosexual and as a victim, females experience more self blame and anticipation of being blamed and/or not believed Relationship to perpetrator: If the perpetrator is a family member or in a family like role, disclosure is less likely to happen Internal: Shame, self blame, and fear are psychological barriers. In addition, fear of negative consequences on the family and for self safety inhibits disclosure Family relations: Families with a patriarchal structure, rigidly fixed gender roles, dysfunctional communication, other forms of abuse (i.e., domestic violence), and isolation inhibit disclosure Environmental and cultural context: Lack of discussion about sexuality; passive acceptance that unwanted sexual experiences are inevitable; not wanting to bring shame to the family by admitting sexual abuse; lack of involvement from neighbors, school personnel; and stigma perpetuated by societal perceptions Age: Disclosures increase with age, especially in adulthood. Gender: Slight trend toward females who are older (adolescent) to disclose before adulthood Relationship to perpetrator: If the perpetrator is not living with the victim, disclosure rates increase Dialogical context: Opportunities to disclose through discussion, therapeutic relationship, information sessions on sexuality, and sexual abuse prevention programs Family relations: Supportive parent-child relationship. Involvement of others: Eyewitnesses coming forward and reporting; detection through community members, professionals Environmental and cultural context: Promotion of open discussion of sexuality; community member involvement as children gain more developmental capacity, understanding of sexual abuse as victimization, and increased independence. Males are somewhat less likely to disclose, but this is often in interaction with other factors in the environment such as soci- etal attitudes that promote hypermasculinity as desirable, atti- tudes that perpetuate negative views of boys and men who are victims, and homophobic attitudes (Alaggia, 2010; Easton et al., 2014; Gagnier & Collin-Vézina, 2016). Victims of intrafamilial abuse when the offender is a parent, caregiver, significant family member, or someone in a family- like role are less likely to disclose immediately or at all in childhood/adolescence because of obvious power differentials and dependency needs (Collings et al., 2005; Dumont et al., 2014; Hershkowitz et al., 2005; Kogan, 2004; Leclerc & Wort- ley, 2015; Paine & Hansen, 2002; Schaeffer et al., 2011). Further, the perpetrator residing with their victim(s) increases the likelihood of no disclosure (Leclerc & Wortley, 2015). Internalized victim-blaming, mechanisms to protect oneself (such as minimizing the impact of the abuse), and developmen- tal immaturity at the onset of abuse constituted internal bar- riers. Further, shame, self-blame, and fear have been identified as significant factors deterring disclosure (Collin-Vézina et al., 2015; Crisma et al., 2004; Goodman-Brown et al., 2003; Hun- ter, 2011; Kogan, 2004; McElvaney & Culhane, 2015; McEI- vaney et al., 2014). However, aspects of shame, self-blame and fear, and have not been fully explored in research. Since these are strong predictors of disclosure suppression, they bear fur- ther examination in future research to understand more fully how they operate in disclosure processes. In terms of interpersonal and environmental factors, family dynamics can play a part in deterring disclosure. As previously mentioned, families characterized by rigidly defined gender roles, patriarchal attitudes that perpetuate power imbalances between men and women, parents and children, presence of other forms of child abuse and/or domestic violence, chaotic family structure, dysfunctional communication, and social iso- lation have been found to suppress disclosure (Alaggia & Kir- shenbaum, 2005; Collin-Vézina et al., 2015; Fontes & Plummer, 2010). In regard to broader environmental factors, disclosure can be hindered when involved and supportive com- munity members are not available, or not trained in sensitive responses, or when child victims anticipate not being believed by neighbors and other people outside the family (Alaggia, 2010; Collin-Veézina et al., 2015). Further, barriers in relation to the social world were identified as stigmatization, the neg- ative labeling of sexual abuse victims, and taboos surrounding sexuality and talking about sex as driven by cultural norms (Collin-Vézina et al., 2015; Fontes & Plummer, 2010). Identification of cultural barriers is important recent contri- bution to understanding disclosure processes—and in particular to the obstacles. Findings related to cultural barriers included themes of children’s voices not being heard leading to silen- cing, the normalization of the sexualization and objectification of girls and women, and the perpetuation of hypermasculinity in men—all acting as barriers in terms of stigma to disclosure (Alaggia, 2005, 2010; Easton et al., 2014). Brazelton (2015) similarly found that lack of discussions about sex, young age at the onset of sexual abuse, therefore not having the language to express what was happening to them, and preserving the family good name by not talking about abuse in the family were also barriers to disclosure. Finally, it may be the case that more barriers continue to be identified over facilitators of CSA disclosure perhaps because of the methods employed in studies—particularly those draw- ing on adult populations who delayed disclosure. These sam- ples may not be representative of the overall population of CSA victims, since they may have had more negative disclosure DOJ-OGR-00006856